Perceptions and Use of Teaching Strategies for Fundamental Movement Skills in Primary School Physical Education Programs.

Fundamental motor/movement skills (FMS) describe the basic skills necessary to complete physical tasks, and are a key aspect of primary school physical education (PE) programs. Yet, specific teaching styles for FMS development have been relatively unexplored. Through a mixed-methods design, experiences and perceptions of different PE teachers (preservice, specialist, and generalist) were explored. The Spectrum of Teaching Styles (STS) survey was used to quantify self-reported use of teaching styles that may be used by PE teachers (N = 102). Semi-structured, qualitative interviews with a subset of participants (N = 11) were employed to explore how PE teachers perceive FMS development in PE classes. Combined, the findings highlight a preference for collaborative approaches to teaching and learning in PE, with a specific preference for explicit teaching strategies. Survey results demonstrated a preference for Style B (the practice style), which promotes teacher facilitation of activities and constructive feedback, with opportunities for students to practice skills and receive feedback. Teachers described how confidence with PE content influences the ability to provide lessons that target FMS development; this was reinforced by desires for additional professional development and training. Together, the findings provide a holistic view of teaching styles used in PE for FMS development, and outline a need to explore teaching approaches used by different PE teachers.

The influence of object size on second-order planning in an overturned cup task.

For children, second-order planning in object manipulation, as demonstrated by the end-state comfort (ESC) effect, is constrained by numerous factors. As a step towards delineating the influence of object size, children (ages 6-10, n = 113) and adults (ages 18-25, n = 17) performed an overturned cup task with 8 cup sizes (4.7-8.4 cm diameter). Contrary to the hypothesis, cup size did not predict the overall proportion of trials with ESC. An increase in age and hand length did result in more ESC. Subsequent analyses with children, which focused on each cup size, revealed an increase in the ratio of hand size to cup size resulted in an increase in ESC with the 4.7, 5.2, 6.2, and 6.7 cm cups, age was a significant predictor with 4.7, 5.2, and 6.2 cm cups, and the interaction was significant for the 6.2 cm cup. No other significant results emerged. Together, findings offer preliminary support for the notion that object size does constrain children's motor planning skills to a certain degree (i.e., with large cups); however, further inquiry is warranted to elucidate the link between object size and hand size in children's performance of tasks requiring second-order planning.

Hand preference for unimanual and bimanual tasks: Evidence from questionnaires and preferential reaching.

The current research compared hand selection in a preferential reaching paradigm with unimanual (i.e., pick-up cup) and bimanual (pick-up cup and pour from pitcher) tasks. In addition, relationships between self-report, questionnaire-based hand preference (unimanual and bimanual) and patterns of hand selection were assessed. Data offer support for a division of labour between the hands in at the midline; however, bimanual selection otherwise reflects consideration of object proximity (i.e., location) and comfort (i.e., biomechanical constraints). When grasping cups in right space, the right-hand was used to stabilize the cup and left-hand to mobilize the pitcher, whereas the opposite pattern was observed in left-space. Unimanual hand selection was also driven by object location. Subsequent analyses revealed a relationship between unimanual measures, but not bimanual measures of hand preference. Overall, findings support the notion that questionnaire data are associated with hand preference for grasping to a certain extent; however, use of a comprehensive battery of assessments is recommended when assessing and/or predicting handedness.

Instructors' Perspectives of Social and Motor Influences on Participation in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder.

Participation is key to childhood development and is essential for health and well-being; yet children with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) participate less in social and physical activities compared to their typically developing peers and little is known about how social and motor challenges impact participation patterns. Purpose: The current research garnered experiential insights of the quality and quantity of participation, through the lens of instructors (N = 9) working with a child or children with ASD. Method: Semi-structured qualitative interviews were conducted to capture a comprehensive and informative profile of how social and motor functioning of children with ASD influence involvement in social and physical activities. Results: Thematic analysis revealed consistent viewpoints in four main areas: (1) Viewpoints extend beyond the World Health Organization definition of participation; (2) Participation depends on who is involved; (3) Although motivation, confidence, and competence in social/motor domains underlie participation, social challenges were perceived as the greatest barrier; (4) While acknowledging the benefits of participation, it is necessary to be cognizant of the required supports. Throughout these themes, the notion of heterogeneity was made very clear. Conclusion: Collectively, perspectives offer descriptive insight which may be useful when designing opportunities for participation in social and physical activities among children with ASD.

How far will you go before switching hands? Handedness on the long pegboard across the lifespan.

Handedness is a significant behavioral asymmetry; however, there is debate surrounding the age at which hand preference develops, and little research has been conducted on handedness in older adults. The current study examined performance on the long pegboard, to identify similarities and differences in young children (ages 4-7 years), older children (ages 8-12 years), young adults (ages 18-25 years), and older adults (ages 70+ years). Average time per hole, number of hand switches, and errors were assessed with left- and right-hand starts. A left-right ratio was computed from the long pegboard, along with laterality quotients from the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire (WHQ). Results revealed faster performance when participants started the task on the right side of the long pegboard with the right-hand, coupled with a later switch to the left-hand. There was a greater number of errors with left-hand starts, and an earlier switch to the right-hand. Age was a significant predictor of the average time per hole and number of errors. Long pegboard ratio and WHQ laterality quotient were only correlated for adults. Together, findings offer insight regarding age-related effects in handedness and support the long pegboard as a useful measure of handedness.

Preferential Reaching and End-State Comfort: How Task Demands Influence Motor Planning.

Various factors (e.g., hand preference, object properties) constrain reach-to-grasp in hemispace. With object use, end-state comfort (ESC) has been shown to supersede the preferential use of one hand at the midline. To assess how location, size, and orientation of objects (dowel, mallet, cup) influence preferred-hand use and ESC (N = 50; Mage = 20.83), three preferential reaching tasks were implemented. Object location influenced hand selection in all tasks, along with size (cups) and orientation (mallets). Object location and orientation influenced ESC, but only with dowels and mallets. When oriented away from the preferred hand in hemispace, there was a higher occurrence of non-preferred hand use to facilitate ESC. Overall, findings add to understanding of ESC and preferential reaching with varying task demands.

Exploring Caregiver Perspectives of Social and Motor Skills in Children With Autism Spectrum Disorder and the Impact on Participation.

Participation is a key aspect of quality of life and is essential for children's well-being, yet children with disabilities are at risk for lower participation in social activities. For children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), social skills may present a significant obstacle for participation in activities of daily life; however, motor skill development may also serve an important contributing factor. Nevertheless, the link between social and motor skills in children with ASD is not fully understood. The current research implemented semistructured interviews to garner descriptive insights from caregivers (N = 17) into the social and motor skills of 5- to 9-year-old children with ASD and the impact on participation in social activities. A constant comparative method was used to generate a coherent and thematic representation of caregivers' experiences. Thematic analysis revealed core consistencies in three areas: (1) caregivers viewed participation differently than their children; (2) participation levels of children with ASD are context specific; (3) challenges with social skills were perceived to present a greater obstacle to participation than motor skills. Overall, the notion that ASD is a heterogeneous disorder was made very apparent. Although caregivers believe there to be immense value in current treatment and intervention options, the availability and access to such options was a major barrier. The effectiveness of intervention programming designed to increase participation is contingent on understanding factors that affect participation. Implications concerning caregivers' perspectives are discussed.

Cross-lateralisation in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and motor skill performance.

Cross-lateralisation and increased motor difficulties have been reported in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Nevertheless, the question of how crossed (i.e. mixed preference) or uncrossed (i.e. same side preference) lateralisation impacts motor performance in children with ADHD has yet to be examined. In this study, previously validated observational measures of hand and foot preference were used to identify right-handed children with ADHD who display cross- (n = 29) and uncross-lateralisation (n = 31). An uncross-lateralised typically developing (TD) group (n = 32) was also identified, and included as a control. Motor performance was assessed with seven valid and reliable fine and gross motor tasks performed with both preferred and non-preferred limbs. Group, task and sex-related effects were examined. Findings revealed that male (but not female) cross-lateralised children with ADHD performed significantly worse, respectively, in two of the fine motor tasks (spiral tracing [p < .01], and dot filling [p < .05]). Results suggest that cross-lateralised hand and foot preference may affect complex motor skills in male children with ADHD. Furthermore, characteristics of ADHD may manifest differently in male and female children. Findings highlight the importance of considering both hand and foot preference when targeting motor interventions for children with ADHD.

Investigating the Efficacy of the Hand Selection Complexity Task Across the Lifespan.

There is inconsistent evidence demonstrating a relationship between task complexity and hand preference. However, analyzing the point at which task complexity overrides the decision to demonstrate a biomechanically efficient movement can enable complexity to be quantified. Young children (ages 3-7), adolescents (ages 8-12), young adults (ages 18-25), and older adults (ages 65+) performed a newly developed Hand Selection Complexity Task (HSCT) and completed the Waterloo Handedness Questionnaire (WHQ). The HSCT included a reciprocal Fitts' tapping task performed in the contralateral space (i.e., same side as preferred hand), followed by ipsilateral space (i.e., opposite side of preferred hand). An alternating contralateral-ipsilateral pattern enabled the participant to progress through six levels of difficulty in three conditions (manipulating target amplitude, width, and combined factors). As participants were free to perform with whichever hand (i.e., preferred, non-preferred) they deemed most appropriate, the level of difficulty where a hand switch occurred was identified. HSCT completion time and error scores were also computed. Findings revealed age to be a significant predictor of dependent measures when considering significant effects and interactions. Combined with the covariate WHQ score as a significant predictor of HSCT time and errors (in some, but not all cases), it can be argued that age-related effects reflect the development of handedness, and changes in strength of handedness across the lifespan. Together, findings suggest that task complexity plays an important role in hand selection when performing a task of increasing difficulty. It appears that task complexity will take precedent over object proximity and biomechanical efficiency, at a certain point, in order to complete the movement with the preferred hand. This point ultimately changes throughout the lifespan.

Associations between teacher training and measures of physical literacy among Canadian 8- to 12-year-old students.

BACKGROUND: Quality physical education (PE) contributes to the development of physical literacy among children, yet little is known about how teacher training relates to this development. We assessed the association between teacher training, and the likelihood that children met recommended achievement levels for components of physical literacy as defined by the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL). METHODS: Canadian children (n = 4189; M = 10.72 years, SD = 1.19) from six provinces completed the CAPL. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between teacher training (generalist/PE specialist), adjusting for children's age and gender, and physical competence protocols (sit and reach, handgrip, plank, Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], body mass index [BMI], waist circumference, Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment [CAMSA]), the four CAPL domain scores, and the total CAPL score. RESULTS: Teacher training, in addition to children's age and gender, explained only a very small proportion of variance in each model (all R2 < 0.03). Children taught by a generalist were less likely to reach recommended levels of motivation and confidence (OR = 0.83, 95% CI, 0.72-0.95) or CAMSA scores (OR = 0.77, 95% CI, 0.67-0.90), even when accounting for a significant increase in CAMSA score with age (OR = 1.18, 95% CI, 1.12-1.26). All other associations between measures of components of physical literacy and teacher training were not significant. CONCLUSIONS: While teacher training is hypothesized to contribute to the development of physical literacy among elementary school students, the observed effects in this study were either small or null. Children taught by PE specialists were more likely than those taught by generalists to demonstrate recommended levels of motivation and confidence, and to have better movement skills, which are hypothesized to be critical prerequisites for the development of a healthy lifestyle. Further research with more robust designs is merited to understand the impact of teachers' training on the various components of physical literacy development.

Hand selection in a preferential reaching task: The effects of object location, orientation, and task intention in preadolescent children.

INTRODUCTION AND METHODS: Hand selection was assessed in preadolescent children (ages 9-11) within a preferential reaching task to delineate the effects of object location, orientation, and task intention on the assessment procedure and compared to data previously acquired from young adults. RESULTS: The observed differences support the notion that children are still in a process of refining their movements in attempt to discern the most efficient and effective patterns of behavior. Notwithstanding differences in performance, similarities between preadolescents and young adults also emerged. Greater right-hand selection in right space and when the handle was oriented to the right indicate that object proximity and orientation influence efficiency and thus constrain hand selection in unimanual object manipulation and role-differentiated bimanual manipulation. CONCLUSIONS: Together, findings add to our understanding of hand preference, unimanual and bimanual object manipulation.

End-state comfort in two object manipulation tasks: Investigating how the movement context influences planning in children, young adults, and older adults.

The movement context (pantomime, pantomime with image/object as guide, and actual use) has been shown to influence end-state comfort-the propensity to prioritize a comfortable final hand position over an initially comfortable one-across the lifespan. The present study aimed to assess how the movement context (pantomime, using a dowel as the tool, and actual use) influences end-state comfort when acting with objects (glass/hammer) that differ in use-dependent experience. Children (ages 6-11, n = 70), young adults (n = 21), and older adults (n = 21) picked up an overturned glass to pour water and a hammer to hit a nail, where the handle faced away from the participant. End-state comfort was assessed in each movement context. Findings provide support for an increase in end-state comfort with age, adult-like patterns at age 10, and no difference between older adults and 8- to 9-year-old children. In addition, this work revealed that perception of "graspability" led to an increase in end-state comfort in the hammering task; therefore, suggesting our ability to act with objects and tools in the environment is influenced by use-dependent experience and object perception. Results add to our understanding of changes in motor planning abilities with age, and factors underlying these changes.